REFORMATION AND COUNTER-REFORMATION

Catholic Encyclopedia: The Reformation

Causes, original ideas, spreading methods and countries, forms, results, consequences. Seen through the eyes of the Catholic Church.

Calvinism and Arminianism

Two religious faiths, Calvinism and Arminianism and how they correlate with each other. John Calvin's first edition of Institutes of the Christian Religion and how the Romanists responded. By the 17th Century Calvinism superceded Lutheranism as the most important representative of Protestantism. Arminianism and its origins and effects. The many religious faiths that branched out from Catholicism.  Also here.

Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences.  Commonly Known as 95 Theses

Lists all 95 theses written by Martin Luther, which brought on accusations of heresy and eventually led to his excommunication and the reformation of the church.

Life and Times of Martin Luther

Timeline of Luther's career as a reformist including pictures of Luther and significant events during time period. Briefly explains origins of the Reformation.

Models for Reformation: Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England (1599-1658)

Biography of Oliver Cromwell and how he changed the political institutions of England. Cromwell, a staunch Puritan, prayed and fasted often and believed in going down to local taverns to involve the patrons in singing hymns! Cromwell's forcefulness and determination appealed to the Puritans and they chose him as the leader of the Independent Party, as well as representative to Parliament. Persecution of the Puritans, civil war between the King and the Puritans. Oliver Cromwell as responsible for leading the Puritans into battle and successfully overthrowing the King of England, even though the Puritan forces were greatly outnumbered. Cromwell as "Lord Protector." Cromwell managed to produce what is known as a brief " Golden Age" in history. Further link in understanding the Reformation Movements that Europe experienced throughout the years.

Pope Paul III

Focus on one of the most important high priests of the Counter-Reformation, Pope Paul, who created the Society of Jesus, appointed men into the College of Cardinals, assembled the Council of Trent. His fondness for works of Michelangelo and other Renaissance artists.

A Reformation Gallery

Several pages of art produced during the Reformation, including many of Martin Luther during different time periods. If you are a Martin Luther fan, this site is for you! Pictures of significant places as well as other important people of this time period.

The Reformation and Counter-Reformation

History of the Reformation and the Roman Church's strategy against it. Compares and contrasts Protestant reformers to Roman Catholics ideals in art and architecture. Site's "Aftermath" explains the effects of the Reformation on modern day life and religion.  The catalyst? "At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Catholic church, modeled upon the bureaucratic structure of the Holy Roman Empire, has become extremely powerful, but internally corrupt. From early in the twelfth century onward there are calls for reform. Between 1215 and 1545 nine church-councils are held with church reforms as their primary intent. The councils all fail to reach significant accord. The clergy is unable to live according to church doctrine, and the abuse of church ceremonies and practices continues."

Reformation Theology

Explanation of the theology of the reformists as well as concise definitions and some history on the Reformation. Defines T U L I P, also known as the five points of Calvinism: Depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited (or Definite) Atonement, Irresistible Grace, Perseverance of the Saints.

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Barred from Heaven?

"At the base of the altar, we see an angel tearing pages out of a book." Sculpture of John Huss and Martin Luther being thrown out of heaven by Mary. It is Ignatius Loyola's tomb. "John Huss was a student of John Wycliff, who translated the Bible into English in 1382. Wycliff advocated the right of the common man to read the Bible in his own language. Both Wycliff and Huss believed scripture to supercede the dogmas and ordinances of the church and both declared the Papacy to be the AntiChrist foretold in scripture. John Huss was burned alive at the stake in 1415 for his "heresy" and rebellion against Catholic authority. Wow!

Fire That Was Kindled

"The smoke blinds him, the flames are circling above his head. The flames wrap him round, his head falls on his breast. The fire does its work, and a heap of ashes is all that remains. Yet the voice goes on." Great treatise of an unpopular martyr. "The priests and bishops and Pope have got rid of John Huss. Have they? By no means. It is only the beginning of their troubles with him, for the people of Bohemia resent his death. It is the beginning of a terrible war, which lasts many years, and drenches the land with blood." Essay with passion including detail as well as capturing fascination. Good for martyr sympathizers.

John Huss, Priest and Martyr

"The Council, having just narrowly succeeded in uniting Western Christendom under a single pope after years of chaos, was not about to have its work undone." Behind historical scenes look at discords neighboring John Huss' situation. Brief excerpt of his life. Delightful reading. From "Bibiliographic Sketches of Memorable Christians."

Persecutions in Bohemia

In depth coverage of Huss, including others persecuted in Bohemia. Good material. Long reading, needs undivided attention. From Fox's Book of Martyrs.

BROAD BRUSH

Reformation: Religious Wars

"The latter half of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century brought about one of the most passionate and calamitous series of wars that Europe had ever experienced...The final result of these struggles would be the overthrow and execution of Charles I in England in the middle of the 17th century, an historical earthquake that permanently changed the face of Europe."  These struggles "would eventually shatter the European monarchical traditions themselves."

THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR

The Hundred Years War - Causes
The Beginning of the War

From a fifteenth-century manuscript of the chronicle of Jean Froissart, a contemporary of Chaucer's, and a poet as well. Froissart, who was French, was usually partisan towards Richard II because Richard favored a peace treaty with France.

The Hundred Years War Game - Play it For $6 a Month!
Exhibition of Paintings of the Hundred Years War

Maps of the Hundred Years War

Map timeline of France of development of the war. Helpful in conveying the areas involved in the war, and what was won and lost.

THIRTY YEARS WAR

The Thirty Years' War

Lengthy and detailed essay on the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648).  Spain, France, Sweden, Bohemia, The Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire were embroiled in a continuous war between Catholics and Protestants. The war itself was divided into Bohemian Period (1618-1625), Danish Period (1625-1629), Swedish Period (1630-1635), and Swedish - French Period (1635-1648). Essay focuses on Bohemian King Ferdinand II (Catholic). The peace of Westphalia (October 24, 1648) put an end to all fighting when all countries were exhausted. "The real losers in the war were the German people. Over 300,000 had been killed in battle. Millions of civilians had died of malnutrition and disease, and wandering, undisciplined troops had robbed, burned, and looted almost at will. Most authorities believe that the population of the Empire dropped from about 21,000,000 to 13,500,000 between 1618 and 1648. Even if they exaggerate, the Thirty Years War remains one of the most terrible in history."

Thirty Years War 2

Brief capsule information on Gustavus Adolphus, Wallenstein, Cardinal Richelieu of France, and the Hadsburg Dynasty. "The Thirty Years War persuaded everybody that neither the Protestants nor the Catholics could be completely victorious and dreams of an empire, united under a Catholic Church had to be abandoned." Series of European conflicts lasting from 1618 to 1648, involving most of the countries of western Europe, and fought mainly in Germany. The war was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history.
The Peace of Westphalia

Which ended the War. "The treaty guaranteed the religious and political constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, giving the German princes the sovereign right to settle the religious question in theirrespective territories. France also achieved its main war aim because the costly war and the concessions to the princes effectively stopped the Habsburgs from transforming the Holy Roman Empire into an absolutist state under their direction.

Wars of the Roses

Wars of the Roses is a name given later to a series of battles fought by two rival branches of the Plantagenet dynasty for control of the English throne in the 15th century. Each family had a rose as its emblem - white for the York family, red for the House of Lancaster. Clear and easy-to-follow survey of the Wars of the Roses including the major players and important battles.